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This history of baseball is America's history.  It's a history of litigation between business, and businesses and players; it's a history of labor disputes; a history of racial segregation and then integration; a history of full of highs such as Babe Ruth and lows such as the White Sox Scandal; and it's a history of eithics of competition and drug use.  And now, it's a future of the internationalization of Major League Baseball, and the Globalization of the game.

We hope you enjoy our succinct history of baseball below.

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A Succinct History of Baseball

The Foundational Era of Baseball
(The Origins of Baseball, Rounders, The Knickerbocker Baseball Club, and the Dead Ball Era)

Historians generally agree that modern baseball was based upon the English game called “Rounders”, and began to be played in America in the early 1800's.   As its popularity grew, it started to be called “base”, “baseball” or even “townball.”

Alexander Cartwright of the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club of New York City is believed to be the first to formalize the rules of baseball. The name of the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club team was in reference to the fire station in which Alexander Cartwright worked (the Knickerbocker Engine Company No. 12 of the New York City Fire Department.) The first fully recorded baseball game was between Knickerbocker Base Ball Club of New York City and the New York Baseball Club in 1846. The Knickerbocker’s lost

Fans of today's baseball would see many similarities to the original form of the game.  The original rules of baseball were as follows:

The Original Rules of the Knickerbock Base Ball Club
(“The Original Rules of Baseball”, “Knickerbocker Rules”)

1. Members must strictly observe the time agreed upon for exercise, and be punctual in their attendance.

2. When assembled for exercise, the President, or in his absence, the Vice-President, shall appoint an umpire, who shall keep the game in a book provided for that purpose, and note all violations of the By-Laws and Rules during the time of exercise.

3. The presiding officer shall designate two members as Captains, who shall retire and make the match to be played, observing at the same time that the players opposite to each other should be as nearly equal as possible, the choice of sides to be then tossed for, and the first in hand to be decided in like manner.

4. The bases shall be from "home" to second base, forty-two paces; from first to third base, forty-two paces, equidistant.

5. No stump match shall be played on a regular day of exercise.

6. If there should not be a sufficient number of members of the Club present at the time agreed upon to commence exercise, gentlemen not members may be chosen in to make up the match, which shall not be broken up to take in members that may afterwards appear; but in all cases, members shall have the preference, when present, at the making of a match.

7. If members appear after the game is commenced, they may be chosen in if mutually agreed upon.

8. The game to consist of twenty-one counts, or aces; but at the conclusion an equal number of hands must be played.

9. The ball must be pitched, not thrown, for the bat.

10. A ball knocked out of the field, or outside the range of first or third base, is foul.

11. Three balls being struck at and missed and the last one caught, is a hand out; if not caught is considered fair, and the striker bound to run.

12. If a ball be struck, or tipped, and caught, either flying or on the first bound, it is a hand out.

13. A player running the bases shall be out, if the ball is in the hands of an adversary on the base, or the runner is touched with it before he makes his base; it being understood, however, that in no instance is a ball to be thrown at him.

14. A player running who shall prevent an adversary from catching or getting the ball before making his base, is a hand out.

15. Three hands out, all out.

16. Players must take their strike in regular turn.

17. All disputes and differences relative to the game, to be decided by the Umpire, from which there is no appeal.

18. No ace or base can be made on a foul strike.

19. A runner cannot be put out in making one base, when a balk is made by the pitcher.

20. But one base allowed when a ball bounds out of the field when struck.

The First Baseball League

The first official baseball league was formed in 1856. Twenty five amateur teams (all from the northeastern part of America) sent delegates to a convention to formalize rules and the league structure. The resulting league was called the National Association of Base Ball Players.  In the first year of its operation the league grew in popularity, supporting itself by occasionally charging fans for tickets.

Still in its infancy, the growth and popularity of baseball would be disrupted by the Civil War - which disrupted the daily lives of all Americans who either fought directly in the war, had family members fighting in the war (sometime on both sides of the war), or were impacted by the ravages of war and/or shortages of daily living supplies.  But, the war also brought the migration of ideas as people from different parts of the country travelled to fight in other parts of the country. So, while interest in baseball was disrupted due to the Civil War, the Union soldiers carried the game to other parts of the country in their travels. The result was that when the war ended, baseball enjoyed a greater reach than before, and increased in popularity.

As an indication of the increased interest in baseball, the National Association of Base Ball Player’s convention in 1868 (the war ended in 1865) drew delegates from over 100 clubs. With popularity and wider geographic interest, it became more common for clubs to charge admission to games and corporate sponsors started to become more prevalent due to increased travel costs. And while the league was comprised of amateur players, many players were secretly given jobs by sponsors, while others were secretly paid a salary.

The first fully professional team in baseball was the Cincinnati Red Stockings (going pro in 1869). The team’s record was sixty-five games won, and none lost. The success of the Cincinnati Red Stockings increased pressure for other teams to recruit the best players by paying them to play. The amateur teams began to fade away through attrition of the best players, and finally in 1871 the National Association of Base Ball Players became the first professional baseball league.  The teams were primarily owned and managed by players. The league fielded nine professional teams, and increased to 13 teams 4 years later.

With the increased popularity of baseball, gamblers started to bet on more games, and gambling began to undermine the credibility of the games.  In the end, this resulted in the first National Association being short lived.

After the 1875 season, the National League was formed to replace the National Association of Base Ball Players. Contrary to the original Association, the National League was run by businessmen (rather than players) who implemented a more formal league by established standards and policies for ticket prices, schedules, and player contracts.

The National League’s success brought competition, and in 1882 a rival league call the American Association was formed. It had teams in the larger cities and competed with lower ticket prices. The competition led to a coopetitive agreement between the two leagues, ratified as a “National Agreement.”

Baseball and the Start of Labor Relations Issues

The agreement called for the two professional leagues (and minor leagues) to honor each leagues player’s contracts, and allowing each team bind a bind a certain number of players with a “Reserve Clause.” This clause granted teams the rights to unilaterally renew a player’s contract, preventing that player from discussing contracts with other teams.

The power of the unified leagues took away the negotiating power of individual players. In order to break this hold by the leagues, the players developed the Union Association in 1884. This player's owned league lasted only a season due to financial issues. Six years later, the players tried again to form a competing league: the Players League. Most of the best players from the American Association and National League joined, but like its predecessor, the Players League went bankrupt after one season.

While the Player’s League was not a success, it did have an impact on the other leagues. The American Association folded due to the loss of its best players and resulting interest from fans, and four of its best teams joining the National League. The Player’s League was the last attempt by baseball players to form their own league, and we’ll see that they turn to unionization later in baseball’s history. The “Reserve Clause” was problematic for players through most of baseball’s history – and ultimately would lead to player strikes almost 100 years later (in the 1970’s).

Baseball and Race in America and the Founding of the Negro Leagues

Baseball was not a sport which generally supported the integration of whites and African Americas at this time, and the players were predominantly of European decent. Regardless, there were a small number of black athletes who played along side their white peers in minor and major leagues teams during the antebellum (post-Civil War) period. Most players did not play long on local teams due to racial prejudice by fans.

For example, in 1883 Moses "Fleetwood" Walker began his professional baseball career with Toledo in the Northwestern League (a minor league team.). When the Toledo base ball club joined the American Association in 1884, Walker became the first black player to play with a major league team. Therefore, while Jacky Robinson is often credited with breaking the color barrier by being the first African American to play in the major leagues, approximately 57 years earlier Walker played professional baseball with a major league team. The result wasn’t lasting, and changed dramatically in 1890.

As the 1890 season began, a verbal agreement had been reached by owners of major and minor league teams to bar black players, regardless of their abilities on the field. This “gentlemen’s agreement” would last the next 50 years.

The Start of the Negro Leagues

This ban on blacks in major league baseball didn’t stop African Americas from playing the sport.  Rather, African Americans developed their own teams, with more than 200 all-black independent teams that competed from the early 1880s through the integration of baseball in 1957. Teams like the Cuban Giants, Cuban X Giants and Harrisburg Giants played both independently and in loosely organized leagues, and in the early 1900s professional black baseball began to blossom throughout America's heartland and in the South.

Major League Baseball's American League's Debut

Baseball’s popularity was increasing in both white and black populations. With increased popularity, another challenger emerged to Major League Baseball's National League with the American League being founded in 1901. The American League targeted most of the NL’s best talent, and with the increased competition and contract disputes, a court injunction was put in place. The court established a three-man commission to run the leagues – managing both leagues together.

The Dead Ball Era

From its founding and through the first decade of the twentieth century, baseball remained a game of strategy. This time is often referred to as the “dead ball era” because the construction of the baseball at this time did not lend itself to homeruns. The game of baseball relied on contact-hitters, bunting, and base-stealing for its offense. This is a style of play that in today’s game is often referred to a “small ball.”

In addition, during this time a single ball would be used through a game, with foul balls being tossed back onto the field for continued use. The ball would only be replaced if it began to unravel. As the game progressed, the ball’s action when pitched would change and it would be harder and harder for a batsman to hit the ball.   It also became difficult to see as it became dirty and worn. At the time, scuffing the ball, slicing it with an emery board and throwing spit balls was not only common but was within the rules of the game. The difficulty in seeing the ball, as well as the erratic movement on a pitch, gave an advantage to the pitchers.

Another change which negatively impacted hitters was the “foul strike rule” implemented in the National League in 1901, and then followed in the American League in 1903. This rule change counted foul balls as strikes. Prior to the implementation of this rule, batters could defend the plate by fouling off numerous marginal pitches – which had the effect of increasing pitch counts and tiring pitchers. The adoption of this rule again gave an advantage to the pitchers by decreasing pitch counts as hitters had to be more selective.

In 1911 the technology of the ball changed with the adoption of a cork center in the ball providing it more spring off the bat. With the adoption of the new ball, batters and offense began to gain the advantage.

Legal Challenge to Baseball's Monopoly Status

With the continued popularity of baseball, another competing league was developed. In 1914 the Federal League was established. In order to establish its place in baseball, it sued the AL and NL, contending that the then current league structure constituted a monopoly. The Federal League lasted just two seasons, folding as its legal case made its way through the court system.

In 1922, the U.S. Supreme court made a ruling in the case of Federal Baseball Club v National League, and concluded that baseball was exempt from the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Major League Baseball’s monopoly remained in effect.

The Negro Leagues Formalize

At the same time, black baseball had become a highly popular spectator sport for urban African American populations. With its increased popularity, the owner of the Chicago American Giants led the development of the Negro National League in 1920.

The Negro National League had eight initial teams: Chicago American Giants, Chicago Giants, Cuban Stars, Dayton Marcos, Detroit Stars, Indianapolis ABCs, Kansas City Monarchs and St. Louis Giants. In the same year the Negro Southern League was formed. Three years later (in 1923), the Eastern Colored League was formed. These leagues were not seen as significant competitive leagues to the National or American leagues as they were not competing for white players or white customers, and therefore there was little done to stop the league’s development by Major League Baseball.

These leagues are commonly referred to today as the Negro Leagues.

The World Series

Major League Baseball had several incarnations of a championship game over its history – with the development of competing leagues complicating the championship structure.

The first championship was recorded in 1884 when the Providence Grays of the National League beat the New York Metropolitan Club in the “Championship of the United States.” Several newspapers call the Providence team the “World Champions.”  When the American League was founded in 1901, the two leagues using the National Agreement began an official “World Series” to determine the champion of the combined leagues.

In 1919, the World Series and baseball in general would see one of its lowest days with the exposure of the Chicago White Sox gambling scandal. The players on the Chicago White Sox were accused of throwing the World Series in return for payment from gamblers. The resulting scandal led to the exclusion of players like Shoeless Joe Jackson from baseball, and ultimately the baseball hall of fame, and was also the origin of the famous saying “Say it ain’t so Joe,” supposedly stated by a young fan as he watched Joe Jackson leave the courthouse in disgrace after public hearings. The repercussions of that scandal can still be felt today, for example with the exclusion of Pete Rose (“Mr. Hussle”) from the Baseball Hall of Fame for gambling on games while a player and manager. (It should be noted that Pete Rose admitted to gambling only on baseball games in which he did not play.)

The Golden Era of Baseball
(The Live Ball Era, Babe Ruth, Jackie Robinson and the Integration of Baseball)

Baseball was at a cross roads coming into the 1920’s due to the White Sox World Series scandal. Going into the 1920 season, many changes to the rules used in Major League Baseball led to a more offensive-minded game and batting records began to fall – leading to an explosion of popularity of the game.

This era in baseball is commonly called the “live ball era” or “lively ball era." Starting in 1920, baseballs were now replaced with new balls at the first sign of wear. The result was a ball that was not only much brighter and easier to see, but the ball also had a more consistent action when pitched. In addition, the spitball was now against the rules. The result was that the game changed from a typically low-scoring game, to a higher scoring game, and resulted in a boom in popularity for the sport.

Also at this time,a  special ball player would become the face of baseball in the era, and for time to come. George “Babe” Ruth had been a successful pitcher with the Boston Red Sox, but the New York Yankees used its significant financial resources to purchase his contract. The New York Yankees moved Babe Ruth to the outfield, and he became a homerun hitter (albeit with the strangest swing).

The changes in rules resulting in an explosion of offense and the shattering of former batting records – all personified by Babe Ruth - ushered in an era of extreme interest in baseball and a resulting economic prosperity. Baseball had been saved from the gambling scandal of the 1919 World Series.

While Ruth was playing in New York, the Negro National League continued through the 1920’s, finally dissolving in 1931 due to the financial pressures of the Great Depression. A second Negro National League replaced the former league, and lasted from 1933 through 1949. The Negro Southern League continued operation through the 1940’s, and a new Negro League, the Negro American League, began in 1937. The Negro American League encompassed the best teams from the South and Midwest.

The Negro Leagues continued successfully, and would become one of the largest and most successful black-owned businesses in America.

In the 1940’s war again would have a significant impact on the game of baseball. World War Two brought a larger shift in America society, with a greater integration of whites and African Americas as African Americas took on more active roles in the military fighting along-side white soldiers, and there was a general migration of southern African Americas to northern cities due to the need for labor in manufacturing jobs supporting the war effort.

But, it was not a time of racial peace. Jim Crow laws took away many of the civil rights of black citizens, and discrimination continued with segregated schools, hotels, and even drinking fountains.

Integration of Baseball

In 1947, the Brooklyn Dodgers (owned by Branch Rickey) was the first Major League team in the modern era to hire an African American as a professional baseball player. Jackie Robinson played a season for the Montreal Royals in the International League – a minor league team – and after a single season, Robinson was called up to play for the Dodgers. The Dodgers earned the National League pennant that year, and Robinson earned National League Rookie of the Year honors.

Jackie Robinson’s success did result in an influx of players into the major leagues, such as Roy Companella and Don Newcombe. By 1952 there were 150 black players signed to major league teams, but it would still take 10 years from Robinson’s debut before all major league teams were integrated.

The migration of African America players to major league teams spelled difficulties for the Negro Leagues. During the four years immediately following Robinson's signing with the Dodgers, most of the best talent in the Negro League had either integrated with major league teams, or were now too old to be considered by a Major League Team.

Additionally, Black fans had begun to turn their attention to the integrated Major Leagues, as such the Negro Leagues faced difficulties. The Negro National League finally ceased operation after the 1949 season, and the Negro American League finally disbanding in 1962.

Another Competitor to Major League Baseball

Major league baseball continued to be concentrated in the East, and large cities in the South and West also wanted baseball team. In 1960, the Continental League was formed and again took the NL and AL’s monopoly position to court. Faced with the possibility of losing their monopoly in court, the Leagues reached a compromise, with the number of teams growing from 16 teams to 24 by the end of the 1960’s.

The Modern Era
(Television, Labor Disputes, and the growth of the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA))

A new technology again would impact baseball, but this time it wouldn’t directly impact the field of play. Televisions became more widely available to the general public in the last 1950's and 1960's, and baseball became a popular sport to watch on T.V. Owners started to reap the benefits of the new medium, with television and radio contracts starting to bring in large amounts of additional revenue.

While the profits of the teams increased, player salaries had remained relatively stagnant for many years with the minimum salary of $6,000 – only a thousand dollars greater than it had been in 1947. The reserve clause also limited a player ability to negotiate with other teams, artificially capping the value of a player and the amounts of monies they could make on the free market. A player union was in place called the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA), but its role was primarily to administer a small pension for former professional baseball players.

Professional baseball players had organized several times in baseball history, including the development of the Union League and Player’s League early in it baseball’s life. Now, seeing the success of other unions, such as the United Auto Workers, the Major League Baseball Players Association hired a veteran labor organizer who had overseen the success of the United Steelworkers Union.

The Union and Major League Baseball finalized the first collective bargaining agreement in 1968. It provided some modest improvements to player salaries and conditions, but it set the stage for a stronger union and precedent for negotiation.

The Reserve Clause, first put into place in the 1870’s, continued to cause issues with the players. In 1970, the St. Louis Cardinals traded Curt Flood to the Philadelphia Phillies. Flood filed a suit against Commissioner arguing that the Reserve Clause was illegal, and that he should be allowed to negotiate freely with other teams. The Supreme Court ultimately ruled against him in Flood v Kuhn, but with a 5-3 decision it also admitted the original grounds for the antitrust exemption was an "anomaly".

The union continued to grow in strength, and the players staged a thirteen-day walk out which delayed the start of the 1972 season. In 1975, two pitchers challenged the Reserve Clause again – noting that it stated that teams had the right to renew contracts for one year, which they noted was not bound by timeline, and therefore meant that contracts could be renewed each year. An arbitrator upheld their case, and the result was the start of Free Agency.

Free Agency opened the door to negotiations between teams on a more free-market basis and resulted in increasing player salaries. Conversely, team owners argued they were now being penalized for developing a strong player through their minor league and major league systems, and then having that player leave their contract to a hire bidder as they developed. The two sides couldn’t agree to a contract, and so in the middle of the 1981 season the players staged a walk-out. Fifty days into the season, a contract was completed which resulted in “salary arbitration.”

The economics of baseball was clearly becoming a stronger factor in the historical relationships between players and owners, with the development of the MLBPA providing players increased leverage. In 1985, the players struck again as the owners wanted to eliminate salary arbitration. In 1987, suddenly the Free-Agent market dried up. Following the 1986 season, players in search of contracts found no bidders, and many re-signed with their teams for lower salaries. This continued for the next few years, until an arbitrator ruled that the owners had colluded illegally to limit player salaries. The collective bargaining agreement prohibited that action, and the players were awarded damages.

Labor relations hit an all time low in 1992, when the World Series had to be canceled for the first time in 92 years due to a strike. President William Clinton appointed a mediator, with no results. The owners tried to field replacement players, but the MLBPA was able to stop this practice by receiving a restraining order which prohibited the teams from fielding replacement players.

Finally, in November of 1996 an agreement was reached between the Union and Major League Baseball.

Baseball Today into the Future
(Steroids, The World Baseball Classic)

Baseball today is again at a cross roads. The steroid scandals of current players and recent greats, who use steroids to increase their strength as well as their ability to see the ball when batting, has led to cynicism by fans.

The chase of the homerun record by Mark McGuire and Sammy Sosa drew incredible interest from the press and fans, but the exposure of their use of steroids led to a general sense that an “asterisk” should be used for all modern records to qualify those records due to use of an illegal drug to obtain those records. Barry Bond’s homerun record is seen by many fans with similar cynicism.

The fall-out from steroids continues today – with stars such as Alex Rodriguez admitting to steroid use during their career.

Conversely, the popularity of baseball as an international game continues to expand. Baseball has been popular in Japan and Korea since the 1950’s, and remains popular in areas such as the Caribbean. The Caribbean and Mexico have been great development grounds for Major League Players, and the local baseball leagues in Cuba, Mexico and the Dominican Republic maintain strong fan interest.

The World Baseball Classic

The World Baseball Classic has really been the coming out party of the internationalization of baseball. Began in 2006, the World Baseball Classic has a similar format to the Football (Soccer) World Cup and includes baseball teams from around the world. Japan and Korea remain very strong competitors, Japan winning the most recent classic (2009), and the success of such teams as the Netherlands demonstrates baseball’s reach and interest outside the United States.

The Future of Baseball

Major League Baseball’s future will again depend upon the commissioner and leagues’ ability to deal with scandal, and maintain public interest as it continues to try and expand. Interest in baseball has survived the gambling scandals in its early history and the 1919 World Series, it survived racial segregation and then successfully expanded through integration, survived labor disputes which disrupted championships, and now must find a way to survive the use of illegal steroids for individual players to cheat.

But the expansion of baseball internationally is its bright spot, with stars of Major League Baseball today coming from around the globe.

Baseball’s history is America’s history. A history of legal fights, coopetitive business structures, labor disputes between business owners and employees, gambling scandals and drug use, and now globalization.



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